Ecosystem and human health assessment to define environmental management strategies: the case of long-term human impacts on an Arctic lake / Moiseenko T. I., Gashkina N. A., Voinov A. A. [et al.] // The Science of the Total Environment. - 2006. - Т. 369, № 1-3. - С. 1-20.

TI. Moiseenko et al. /Science o f the Total Environment 369 (2006) 1-20 17 survivability. Benthic communities are more inert to restoration, since their biodiversity is low. Such inhabitants as the amphipod M. affinis, are advantageous in conditions of decreasing toxic pressure and favorable trophic conditions. The overall trend of Lake Imandra recovery is very similar to the processes recorded by Gunn et al. (1995) around Sudbury (Canada). Attributes of ecosystem recovery observed in this work, show an increasing role of higher trophic levels, affected by ecosystem succession (Odum, 1981) and developing toward a more stable (climax) modification that is nevertheless differ­ ent from its original natural structure. Parameters of fish physiological conditions are even more directly related to ecosystem health. During the period of severe pollution there were mass fish diseases (nephrocalcitos, lipid liver degeneration, cirrhosis, ane­ mia, scoliosis and others). Nephrocalnitos of fish was an endemic disease in Lake Imandra, its etiology determined by accumulation of heavy metals and their toxic impact. Based on integral estimates of ecosystem health and rate of fish intoxication symptoms, we can conclude that ecosystem conditions are getting better, but it is still far from recovery. Low calcium concentrations in the Arctic lakes make organisms more vulnerable to toxins. To preserve health of Arctic ecosystems maximal allowed concentrations accepted in Russia for fisheries require revision. The dose-effect dependencies clearly show that heavy metal pollution must be significantly decreased. At the same time, for healthy ecosystem revitalization water pollution (integral parameter Itox-aq.l) must be decreased at least 5 times, first ofall for nickel, which determines many water properties. Our results show that while concentrations of metals in drinking water are quite low according to the standards accepted in Russia, they are still a cause of high rates o f diseases in the human population. Neoformations and kidney pathology are abundant in the population living near Lake Imandra. We should take into account that human population in the Arctic is also exposed to climatic stress, as well as to relatively high air deposition rates for metals, which get incorporated into the food cycle. Besides, the population living around Lake Imandra acts as a top predator consuming most significant doses of elements accumu­ lated in fish tissues. Clearly, the high rate of diseases indicates that the quality of drinking water does not meet the requirements for human health preservation. This conclusion is in line with the needs of ecosystem health recovery, and confirms that water quality standards for fishery and drinking water supply adopted in Russia for Arctic regions are unacceptable. Total flux of sewages and airborne contaminants coming into reservoir must be considerably reduced. However, human health also depends on economical and social factors. The livelihood and sustainability in the Arctic is dependent both on economic development and high quality of drinking water, ecosystem health, biodiversity, and esthetic and recreational capacity — all the components that are accounting for the natural capital in the area. The health of the nation is equally dependent on all these indicators. The obvious next challenge is to relate the observed health indices with watershed management practices as shown in Fig. 9. We have clearly demonstrated that human activity causes environmental damage, which translates into impaired ecosystem health. This is prominently seen from the poor state of the fish population in the lake, increased fish mortality and overall disease level. Furthermore we see how environmental conditions impact the human population living around the Lake. Through drinking water heavy metals pass on into human organisms, resulting in all sorts of disease and decreased life expectancy (the feed-forward chain in Fig. 9 a). The question is how to create feedback in this system, and how Fig. 9. The (a) feed-forward and (b) feed-back components of an integrated system of ecosystem management for Lake Imandra watershed.